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Bipolar junction Transistor: Working and its Applications
09/13/2021 at 11:47 • 0 commentsBipolar junction transistor (BJT):
Bipolar junction transistors are those which contain both holes and free electrons for the transmission of electrons, as the diode is made up of two semiconductors join together to form a PN-junction, BJT is two diodes join together forming a three-layer, two junction semiconductor material. Physically it has three basic terminals through which it is attached in the circuit, these terminals are known as base, emitter, and collector.
Bipolar junction is a combination of Type semiconductor material sandwich between two N-type semiconductor material NPN bipolar transistors or N-type sandwich between two P-type transistors forming PNP transistor. N-type and P-type semiconductors are made by doping. Doping is a process through which semiconductors were treated through some other chemicals to enhance their properties like conductivity by injecting more free electrons and holes.
These transistors are used in the circuits in such a way that by providing a small current through them we can manage or control huge current passing through a circuit that’s why they can be used in switching or amplification of signals especially radio signals.
Based on the functionality BJT transistors are divided into two types PNP and NPN Transistors. Symbolic views of both the transistors are shown in the figure below. In both, the cases emitter-base junction is forward biased where the collector-base junction is reversed biased.
NPN Transistor working:
AS the name represent the P-Type region is between two N-type regions to form an NPN transistor. The P-type region has an excess amount of holes as the majority charge carrier while the N-type region has an excess amount of electrons as the majority charge carrier. In an NPN transistor, the emitter is heavily doped whereas the base is moderately doped and the collector is lightly doped.
Working:
NPN transistors are attached din the circuit in such a way that the emitter is connected with a negative terminal and is forward biased whereas the collector is attached with the positive terminal so the collector-base junction is reverse biased. The electrons from the emitter start traveling towards the base region where only 5 % of them were attached to the holes present there and cause emitter current to flow which is shown in the figure below.
The remaining 95 % of electrons which are left behind as the base layer is very small were traveled towards the collector where they cause collector current o flow. The motion of electrons in the circuit can be observed by the figure showing this illustration. Meanwhile, the Emitter current is equal to the base current and collector current in the circuit.
Working of PNP transistor:
PNP transistor as the name represents P-type Semiconductor is between two N-type Semiconductors, P-type doping contains an excess amount of holes present in it. Emitter which is larger and heavily doped contains a large number of holes in it, the base is smaller in size having an excess amount of electrons as majority charge career and Emitter is again P-type and less doped structure.
The emitter-base junction is forward biased and the emitter is connected to the positive terminal where the collector is attached to the negative terminal and biasing of the collector-base junction is reverse biased. When the current has been applied the holes from the emitter start attracting towards the negative terminal which is the base side and produces emitter current, only 5 % of the holes produced emitter current.
The remaining holes are transferred to the collector region from where they are attracted toward the negative side of the source as shown in the figure in this way collector current is produced. So from here we observe that by using a small amount of electric charge a large amount of current is controlled. The biasing and the production of current can be observed...
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MOSFET: Definition, Symbol, Working, Characteristics, Types & Applications
09/13/2021 at 11:30 • 0 commentsMOSFET:
MOSFET is known as a metal oxide field effective transistor, they are an advanced form of FET as FET have some limitations in their operations, like impedance and frequency limitations, so MOSFETS are used in those circuits where high affectivity is required.
Construction:
Like other transistors, MOSFETs are also made up of semiconductors known as silicon. Semiconductor materials are partially conductive so their properties were increased by a process known as doping. Doping is a technique through which impurities were introduced in the Semiconductor devices to increase their functionality.
Like phosphorus is added as an impurity in the silicon to increase its conductivity, as phosphorous has an excess amount of electrons present in it, which increases the number of free electrons in the silicon, which results in increasing its conductivity, this opening is known as P-type doping. Similarly when boron is added to the silicon as an impurity the number of holes increased. This doping is known as N-type doping. MOSFET is also a combination of these N-type and P-type Doing.
MOSFET has four basic body parts known as Drain, Gate, Body, and source, and they were attached in the circuit with three terminals that are Gate, Body, and Source. MOSFET is made by injecting impurities in silicon and make Gate and Source as P and N-type semiconductor that is clearly shown in the figure.
The construction of the gate terminal is such that a dielectric is placed above the silicon semiconductor with a metal-metal plate above the dielectric. Thus it makes a structure just like a capacitor. As capacitor contains a dielectric between two plats to store charge here Gate terminal acts similarly by using this combination. A clear glimpse of the structural view of MOSFET is shown in the figure.
Working:
The main working Principle of the MOSFET is to control the flow of electricity or voltage between the drain and the source. The semiconductor is doped with either Type or N-type. When the voltage is applied between drain and gate, by connecting Positive terminal with the metallic plate, due to the presence of dielectric Positive charge is start storing in it.
Which further attaches the electron present in the semiconductor, and start pushing the holes downwards in the substrate. These electrons form a thick layer with the dielectric that helps in flowing electrons from source to drain. The thickness of the layer is controlled by the voltage applied.
Conversely when the negative potential is applied then the Holes were attracted towards the plate and electrons are pushed away towards the substrate, forming a depletion region in the substrate. Based on the operation and functionality, the MOSFET working is divided into two different modes known as.
- Enhancement mode
- Depletion Mode
Each mode is further divided into two different types known as
- P-channel
- N-channel
Characteristics:
Drain characteristics:
Drain characteristics of MOSFET for drain current and voltage between drain and source are shown in the graph. As we change the source gate violate we see an increase in drain current initially then become constant with the drain-source voltage increment.
P channel:
As for the P channel, the substrate is N-type while drain and source are heavily doped with P-type, and when the negative voltage is applied the holes are attracted towards the gate and electrons start moving towards the Base or body terminal. The enhancement and depletion mode is depicted in the figures. For these conditions to fill it is mandatory to supply negative voltage to the gate terminal.
In depletion mode, the polarity of the battery is reversed.
N-channel:
The circuit depicts that in type channel the substrate is drain and source have N-type doping and when...
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What is Diode & How it works?
09/13/2021 at 11:11 • 0 commentsDiode:
Diode is a semiconductor device that allows current to flow in only one direction, and shows infinite resistance in the other direction it is also known as a one-way switch. Diodes are installed in circuits mostly to a configuration that is known as forward biased and reverses biased.
The name Diode is derived from two words which are “di” and “ODE” which means two electrodes. The simplest form of the diode is the PN junction. Which conducts electricity when it is forward biased and acts as an open circuit when it is reverse biased.
Symbol:
A diode is simply a PN junction that is combined by a specific method, p-junction contains an excess amount of holes in it which helps in the easy flow of electrons in forward biased. Where N-junction contains an excess amount of electrons in it.
The forward error shows that the diode is forward-biased to ease the flow of electricity. Their polarity can find out by these terminals. When the anode is connected with the positive terminal it is forward biased and when connected to the negative terminal it is reverse biased.
Working Principle of Diode:
A diode is simply an N-type and P-type Semiconductor that is joined together. The N-type semiconductor has an excess amount of free electrons present in it, in other words, it has electrons as a majority charge carrier and holes as the minority charge carrier.
Where the other junction is P-type. P-type junction has holes as a majority charge carrier and free electrons are present in less amount in p-type that means holes are present in excess amount in P-type region.
Now when these two junctions are joined together, as they start transferring their majority charge carriers to each other, for example as p-Type junction has an excess amount of holes in it, when these junctions are combined these holes are starting transferring from P-type to N-type. These holes combine with the free electrons present in the N-type region and make positive ions there.
In the same way, the electrons from the N-type region start moving toward the P-type region and combines with the holes present there, and form uncovered negative ions in that region. This process is shown in the figure below.
This movement of holes and electrons results in the formation of a layer of positive charge in the N-type region conversely a layer of negative charge in the P-type region. The formation of these two layers left no space for charge carriers, which makes a deficiency of charge career in this region. This deficiency of charge carriers is known as the Depletion region between these two junctions this depletion region stops more low electrons and holes on either side.
This means a potential barrier is created between these two junctions, the layer of positive charge in the N-type region repels the flow of holes from the P-type region and the layer of negative charge repels the movement of free electrons from the N-type region. Now if we want to pass out electrons from this PN- junction we have to overcome this potential barrier. Upon working diodes are mostly divides into two categories which are forward biased and reverse biased.
Types of Diode:
- Forward biased
- Reverse Biased
Forward biased:
When we attached the Positive terminal of the source with the P-type junction of the diode and the negative terminal with the N-type junction. We observe that initially, no current is passing through the diode, because the given voltage is not enough to break the potential barrier of the depletion region.
To pass these majority charge carriers from their junction we have to increase voltage so that this potential barrier could be broken. As it is mentioned earlier this potential barrier could only be broken when the External voltage source is more than this potential barrier, the limit of this voltage is different for different materials, i-e is 0.7 volt for germanium.
When the voltage of the...
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How IoT Technology is improving modern world
09/13/2021 at 11:06 • 0 commentsIt is known as the “Internet of Things” is the most emerging paradigm of the modern era that enables actuators, Sensors, and electronic equipment to share data and communicate with each other through the internet. IoT provides a modern innovative solution to industry and everyday day life by reducing human interaction with technology. All the devices and sensors are connected through the internet and can be controlled by a database i-e mobile or a laptop.
This invention has completely modernized our everyday living into smart living by giving us smart cities, driverless cars, smart homes, smart transportation, industrial revolutionary changes, Medical advancement, and much more.
To connect with one another, these gadgets use integrated circuits, nanotechnology, CPUs, and sensors. Each device's data is captured and preserved in a cloud source for analysis. These devices can also communicate and give commands to each other using this data without the need for human intervention. Human interference is only needed where commands are needed to be set. Once the standards are set the commands are automatically passed from one device to other as per instruction.
Importance of IOT in Modern World:
AS mentioned earlier IOT technology is helpful in several domains, ranging from energy consumption to Smart heath, they are everywhere and easing human life. Modern industry is completely revolutionized by IOT technology in improving efficiency and quality by removing human error. Here we discuss some of the modern aspects of IOT.
Energy Consumption:
The most important topic of the present period is smart cities and smart homes. All of these tools help to make human life easier. By employing the instruments, smart houses play a significant part in lowering energy usage, from heating sensors, Digital instruments, Security, appliances, maintain room temperature, and much more. These all devices are set accordingly by the user they communicate with each other to make decisions which help a lot in energy and ease factor.
Furthermore, in the current era, urbanization is the most important aspect. Unnecessary migration to cities makes it more difficult for governments to sustain living standards. However, IoT modern cities are addressing it by transforming their cities into smart cities in order to address globalization, waste collection, energy issues, water issues, air quality, public safety, and traffic congestion. IoT is the only solution to make cities managed in the modern world.
In modern days many companies are working on driverless cars, which is the future of the car industry, this thing happens due to the IoT. As driverless cars were operated through sensors, the data from these sensors were collected in cloud form where signals were sent to actuators and electronic equipment to operate. This IoT technology helps a lot in reducing unnecessary costs and improving the efficiency of modern cars.
Agriculture and Farming:
Agriculture and farming are some of the most important domains nowadays one of the most difficult challenges nowadays are to meet the needs of the global population. This target can only be achievable by smart farming, smart farming is a technique of growing crops and maintaining soil fertilization with the help of modern technologies, like sensors actuators, etc.
Farmers can manage now the fertility of the soil, irrigation, plant health, easily through an IoT system, this is known as Precision farming, and it is the most popular technique for massive growth of crops. Livestock management is the second most crucial aspect for farmers, by the IoT technology farmers can observe the health, nutrition diet, Food and water breaks especially for those animals who have disease or pregnancy.
Smart greenhouses which are quite popular these days due to their results of increased productivity and quality of fruits and vegetables...
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Embedded Projects related to IoT Technology
09/13/2021 at 11:01 • 0 commentsIoT technology revolutionizes the world, everyone is familiar with IoT technology until he is not living under the rock IoT technologies are everywhere starting from our home to offices, and everything is converted or would be converted into IoT systems.
IoT is known as the internet of things, this is a group of embedded devices running on the internet or some wireless connection so that they can communicate and share information, without any human interactions, Anyone can set the standards in dew minutes through a database or some electronic device. These devices use microprocessors and nanotechnology to operate and share data.
From smart homes to agricultural improvement, the industrial revolution, and health repercussions, IoT technologies have a tremendous impact on modern living standards. We've included a few of the world's most important IoT systems here.
Smart Cities:
Overpopulation and urbanization is the major problem for all the modern cities nowadays. Due to the unnecessary migration of people from small cities to bigger cities, it is very difficult for the government machinery to maintain a healthy lifestyle.
BY the use of IoT system the problems like traffic control, Security systems, public administration, and transportation can be easily managed, as all the data related to the cities with the help of sensors, cameras, and GPS systems would be stored in cloud base that is connected with these embedded systems devices which send signals to the relevant authorities to operate.
Furthermore, the Internet of Things (IoT) system Energy usage, essay lightening, and water problems in cities can all be readily addressed with the use of smart cities projects. Smart cities projects help a lot with energy consumption and security issues.
Smart Homes;
Smart homes are the most popular invention of IoT, it is a quite popular niche as many multinational companies are working on this project, one of the famous ones is introduced by Mark Zuckerburg known as Jarvis, and Amazon smart homes are quite popular too.
In smart homes, one can easily manage all types of equipment through its mobile just by a voice note. All the electronic equipment was connected through a center-based cloud system, through which each device communicate and share commands.
Smart homes are the future of mankind as they very help full in improving lifestyle by reducing energy consumption at the same time. For example thermostat sensor can manage the room temperature as per the condition without any human interference at the same time sending commands to the water treatment systems like geysers to operate accordingly.
Smart Agriculture System:
Meeting the needs of such a huge population is one of the most difficult tasks of human life. With the increase in population mostly fertile land is converted into cities. That’s why the need for a Smart agricultural system is a must nowadays.
“Smart agriculture “ or “precision Farming” is a modern way in which farmers with the help of IoT embedded systems containing sensors, actuators, cloud databases can easily manage and control the fertilization of the soil, heath of crops, Proper yielding of crops which results in more yield and healthy crops. Many firms are working on it, companies like crop X, Agro watcher, Gamaya build thousands of projects related to that.
Tel Aviv is the leading Company in the smart farming field, it is an Israel-based company, who is working to produce healthier and most nutrient food in a smart environment. As 70% of the cultivation time is wasted in checking plant health, irrigation system, fertility of the land, OT is the best solution for all of them.
Livestock management is also a major problem in this field, with the help of smart farming one can easily manage and nitrate their farms in a better way. For example, if an animal is ill or he needs some attention,...
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Why Flexible PCB is dominating?
09/13/2021 at 10:54 • 0 commentsThe main purpose of flexible PCB is to diminish the use of cables as well as connectors from various electrical devices. In this way, it also proliferates the reliability of the electronic system and helps us to reduce cost by the means of saving cost. Furthermore, it also reduces the dimension of these daily life appliances.
Flexible PCB is a combination of various circuits along with the substrate, which is flexible regarding the different applications of real life. These circuits are made by an insulating film, which is very thin and made by the means of polymer. Apart from this, conductive elements are attached on both sides of this substrate. The history of these circuits begin after world war 2 and their applications are rising day by day due to their plenty of benefits. As the name demonstrates that we can make modifications in the structure of flexible printed circuit boards regarding usage and space.
Type of flexible PCB
There are plenty of sorts in the case of flexible PCB such as single&double sided flex and it can also multiply layer, flexible board. Furthermore, we can also adjust the size as well as the shape of these circuits, which makes them more extraordinary as compared to others.
- Single-Sided Flexible PCB
- Double-Sided Flexible PCB
- Multi-Layer Flexible PCB
Advantages of Flexible PCB
There is an enormous number of benefits of these circuits in this modern era as compared to the old system.
- Flexible design: As we know from the name, this circuit can be adjusted as we change its usage in different apparatus. It can modify from single layer to double layer, single to double access, and one to multiple layers. It entirely depends on our desire and needs. That’s why it is the most suitable circuit for other categories of circuits. The most appropriate use of this type is in the complex system, where we need plenty of interconnections.
- Reduction in weight and size: Flexible PCB is very tiny in the size as compared to the cable system, which can save plenty of space. Therefore, it is very easy to adjust this circuit in any small place. As a result of this, the applications of this circuit are increasing with time. Furthermore, the weight of this modern circuit is very low regarding the previous connector and cable.
- Durability: This factor is very essential in this modern world in the field of electronic devices. Hence, the lifespan of the electrical system relies on the circuit. Therefore, the durability of this flexible PCB is 500 million more as compared to the normal system. Moreover, it can handle high temperatures, such as 360 degrees. Thus, it can make possible the application of different in high temperature.
- Heat Dissipation: Despite being very denser circuits along with the compact device, it also has plenty of fins as well as the thermal path, which are very helpful in heat dissipation cases. Moreover, flexible circuits have double access, which could boost heat removal.
- Reliability: Before flexible PCB, the main source of the interconnection of the device is cables along with connecting, which produced many doubts about the reliability of these systems due to plenty of failures. However, these problems overcame by the means of modern Flexible circuit boards due to less interconnection. Moreover, it constructs through the machine in this era, which reduces the chances of any error. As a result of this, we can say that reliability is no longer a concern in this case.
- Reduce cost: During the manufacturing process of this circuit, mostly we use polyimide films, which are very small in the size and easily could adjust any place. Therefore, it saves cost in the term of assembly. Besides, the number of errors is diminished due to machinery production.
The Importance of Flexible PCB in the modern world
Due to all the above advantages, flexible PCB plays a crucial role in the progress of the modern world. Therefore, we have countless...
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What is Rigid-Flex PCB? Types and Applications
09/13/2021 at 10:43 • 0 commentsBasically, Rigid-Flex PCB is a mixture of rigid board as well as flexible circuits. There are two main components of this circuit, such as flexible circuit along with the multiply layers function and single or more boards (rigid), which are connected either in the form internal or external way regarding the different applications.
The primary purpose of these systems is to adjust in a very small place in a modern device. Furthermore, it also helps us to increase the reliability of our appliances and reduce the usage of the different interconnectors, such as cables and plugs. Moreover, this system is also very dynamic due to these flexible circuits, which can modify according to different uses. Apart from this, a rigid board also provides stability to this system. Additionally, it also reduces cost as well as errors from our system.
This circuit board system is similar to other flexible circuit systems except for one change, a rigid board system. This is also proliferated the stability as well as reliability of this system as compared to other boards.
ADVANTAGES OF RIGID-FLEX PCB
There are many benefits that we can avail through the usage of Rigid-flex PCB in the different products in this modern era. There are the following advantages that make this system more viable as compared to other counterparts.
- Reliability: The most prominent factor is reliability that made this circuit exceptional as compared to other ones. The reason behind this stability rigid board, which reduces interconnection in this circuit system. If we have a fewer number of connection points in our system then there is less chance of failure of these products. Moreover, the performance of these systems is also extraordinary in various situations, particularly in shock as well as vibration.
- Performance under harsh conditions: Sometimes, various appliances have to work in very harsh conditions such as high temperatures. On the other hand, rigid-flex PC B could handle temperatures from -200 to 400 degrees and maintain their performance during these conditions. Furthermore, these boards could handle UV rays. Hence, the use of these circuits is most common in space for various purposes. Moreover, it can perform in very high voltage and harsh mechanical conditions. Furthermore, it also has a good heat removal system, such as fins.
- Reduction in the size and weight: The size of rigid-flex PCB is very small regarding the old cable and wire system. Therefore, we use these systems in very tiny spaces and can change the size by keep design in our mind. Additionally, it is very essential for us to keep the low weight of such devices, namely medical wearable. In this way, we can increase our comfort due to this lightweight. Therefore, most engineers prefer to use rigid-flex PCB in such a system.
- Reduction of cost: The circuit boards are produced through machines. Hence, the number of errors in this would be very low as compared to the previous old system. Besides this, a rigid board could the span life of this PCB due to reliability. Furthermore, we can also able to save money in the assembly field. In this way, we are able to reduce the price of a different electronic appliances in our daily life things.
Applications and examples of Flex-Rigid PCB
Flex-Rigid PCB has an enormous number of applications in our life. In the past few decades, the main use of this type was in the field of the military, and it also plays a crucial role in the invention of aerospace. Nowadays, the demand of this sort is also increasing in the consumer markets due to its extra benefits. Moreover, the usage of Flex-Rigid PCB is inevitable in the case of motion.
- Medical Wearable’s
In some cases, it is very essential for doctors to get updates regarding the condition of their patients. In this modern era, we have plenty of fitness trackers that could help doctors to check different information about the patient. They can observe their heartbeats and also keep track of calories,...
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Working of PWM in Embedded Systems
09/13/2021 at 10:34 • 0 commentsPWM is known as “Pulse Width Modulation”, it is used to convert analog signals in to single digital bit with the help of microprocessors. It is widely for communication purposes and the control of several electronic devices. The main component of PWM is duty cycle and frequency of the signal.
Duty cycle: Duty cycle is that period in which signal is at highest amplitude or in on State.
Frequency: Number of vibrations per unit time.
A simple glimpse of PWM signals is shown in the figure. This is a converted digital bit signal.
The figure shows the change in behavior of digital bit signal with changing of duty cycle.
Based on modulation PWM is divided into three major types.
- When the center of pulse modulation is fixed bandwidth is changed according to the lead head and tail head.
- When tail head is fixed and lead head can be changed
- When the Lead head is fixed and the tail head can be changed.
Generation of PWM Signal:
The generation of PWM signal is shown in the figure below, as a comparator is a key factor that generates digital bit signal by mixing modulating signal and saw tooth wave the smooth signal is produced. If the frequency of the Saw smooth signal is high as compared to the modulating signal then the duty cycle of the digital bit signal is at maximum position, conversely, if it is then the modulating use show low frequency.
Delta modulation: in delta modulation, the output signal is compared to the reference signal and the offset in the signal is measured with the limits which are set accordingly.
Delta signal: Delta signal compared the output signal with the input one and error is measured accordingly. The integrated signal is further compared with the limits.
Space vector modulation: In this form, PWM is operated based on the on and OFF signal that is given to the device, the reference signal is compared regularly and after each sample, the data is checked with the input signal.
PWM for controlling Motor Speed:
When an electric current is applied to the terminals of the armature it starts rotating, due to the rotation of the armature magnetic field is produced around it. The current is also passed through the armature to the secondary winding and a secondary magnetic field is produced around there. The motor starts rotating because of these two magnetic fields .he rotation of the motor can be controlled with the help of PWM.
To control the speed of the motor we have to control the voltage across its terminals, for that purpose Pulse width modulation plays a lot of important roles. As in PWM voltage was controlled through on and off signals, similarly here we give “ON” and “OFF” pulsation to the motor that affects the duty cycle. When the signal is “ON” the duty cycle is at the highest point and we have maximum motor speed, conversely when we give the “OFF” signal to it than the duty cycle is decreased similarly the motor speed starts decreasing.
The motor speed can also be controlled by warring the bandwidth or timing of these signals. This can be done by varying voltage across it. If the bandwidth of the “ON “ signal is more which means the signal is on for more time than the motor speed got increased.
A simple implementation of PWM in circuits is shown in the figure. By using the PWM technique Power consumption of the converging transistor become very minimum. As PWM is sending either ON signal or OFF signal so it remains in the same state. Moreover, the efficiency of the motor is improved as it currents on constant voltage due to which motor always run at its maximum capacity, the rotation of motor also get smoother and shows no installation.
Power transmission:
Power transmission mostly causes losses of electric signals and efficiency due to the losses of resistance and switches. the simple analog signal does not give maximum...
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Introduction to Field effective transistor, working, Types and Applications
09/13/2021 at 10:08 • 1 commentField-effect Transistor is a type of transistor that Controls the flow of current with the help of the voltage supplied to its gate terminal. It is commonly used for the amplification of the signals, mostly it amplifies both analog and digital signals. FET has three basic terminals which are known as.
- Base: charge careers leave the FET through the base, in other words, it is the exit point of charge careers.
- Source: As the name represents it allows the charge carrier to enter into the FET transistor.
- Gate: Gate plays the role of the switch and regulates the charge flow between source and Base.
As BJT transistors are bipolar because they have holes and free electrons present in them to pass electric signals, but FET is not like that they are unipolar so either they use holes or free electrons in their circuit which means in FET flow of electric current is only due to majority charge career or minority charge career.
Symbol:
Typically the FET is represented by the symbol below. Shoeing three different terminals which are attached in the circuits accordingly.
As per characteristics, they are divide into two most common types known as JFET and MOSFET and each divides into two categories known as P- channel and N- channel.
Working of FET:
Conduction of electric impulses is accomplished using either holes or free electrons, as previously stated. The gate terminal is connected to the source voltage, which controls the current flow between the source and the base.
The “channel” is defined as a pathway between the source and the base, which either contain an N-type or P-type junction.
- N-type Channel: When a negative source is given to the gate, the depletion area expands on both sides, allowing the electric current to flow through the channels despite the fact that there is very little space for the charge to travel. More the voltage, results in more the depletion region. When we kept increasing the negative voltage, the channel reached a point where no more current could pass through it, that point is known as “pinch –off “and the voltage is known as “pinch-off voltage “. The flow of current through the channel and the depletion region is shown in the figure below.
Conversely, in “enhancement mode” or Conduction mode positive Source is applied to the base which increases the conductivity of the electric signals as in this mode electrons are attracted towards the base side and the depletion region starts decreasing and eases the flow of electric current through the channel. The source voltage which is necessary for this process is known as “Threshold voltage”.
- P-type Channel:
As in N-type FET, P-type FET shows the same behavior of modes which are depletion mode and conductivity mode. In the “depletion-mode “A positive source is attached to the gate terminal which attracts the electrons towards the gate and leaves positive ions behind, this process widens the depletion region and enhances the conductivity. The flow of electric charges are visible in the figure below when negative terminal source is attached with the Gate terminal.
Types of Field Effective Transistors:
Field effective transistors are divided into various categories according to their operational behavior application in circuits, but the most important types are MOSFET and JFET.
- JFET:
The working of JFET is the same as we discussed earlier its conductivity depends upon the reduction and formation of the depletion region. It has both N-type and P-type channel working procedures to pass out the electric charge.
- MOSFET:
The working principle of MOSFET is such that it induces an insulation layer between the gate and the channel. As its name represents Metal oxide semiconductor Field effective Transistor. This layer acts as a dielectric between the gate and the channel. It has two...
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What is Aluminum PCB? & where is it used?
09/13/2021 at 06:06 • 0 commentsThere is no such difference between aluminum and other PCB. All of these circuit boards have the same type of layout, but this circuit system uses various copper layers along with the solder mask. Furthermore, it also adds a silkscreen layer over these copper layers. On the other hand, many other boards have to use fiberglass as their substrates, or sometimes, plastic also utilizes for this purpose.
However, the Aluminum PCB uses metal for substrate material rather than conventional ones. Moreover, the combination of metal along with fiberglass is widespread in this sort. The most common type of this PCB is single-sided. Apart from this, we can use double-sided, which is very rare in this sort.
These circuits are most common in the case of heat removal such as LED as well as some other electronic device. When we use LED in our daily life and it produces intense light which leads to the heat issue. On the other hand, the layers of aluminum help to remove heat from LED, which leads to prolife the average life of this device. This is the main example of why this type of circuit is essential in this modern era.
There are three layers in the assembly of this PCB. The first one is the aluminum layer which is used as a base or substrate for another layer, and it is a very high thermal conductor layer. Secondly, the dielectric layer is located in the middle of these layers. In the last, the copper layer is situated on the top of the system, which is thicker as compared to other ones and it has more capacity to store the current in it.
Type of Flexible Aluminum
There are three most common types of this type of PCB
- Flexible Aluminum PCB
In this sort, the dielectric is flexible and it is composed of ceramic along with aluminum material, which can boost the thermal efficiency of this material. Furthermore, we can fold these materials regardless of any harm.
- Hybrid Aluminum PCB
In this type, engineers design non-thermal material along with thermal material such as aluminum. By the means of these products, we can produce a hole in the side of these layers, which help to pass different cables and enhance the design of this system.
- Multilayers Aluminum PCB
In this type, we can add multiple layers according to the design of the products and we can easily boost the performance of these products.
Why Aluminum PCB is essential in this modern era?
The most common problem in different electronics is heat which we need to remove to improve the life of these devices. In this particular condition, aluminum can perform in a better way as compared to other ones, namely fiberglass. Furthermore, engineers need durability in the various product that can provide by the means of metal rather than some ceramic or other materials.
Advantages of Aluminum PCB
There are plenty of benefits of this modern PCB due to its extraordinary property as compared to its counterpart board. There are the following advantages of Aluminum that make this circuit unique.
- Reduction in Cost: Aluminum is a widespread element in our world. Therefore, there is no such hindrance in the process of refining this metal as compared to other metals. In this way, the cost of the board can reduce dramatically if we use aluminum for the production of PCB. Therefore, the usage and demand of this metal in increasing with time.
- Environmentally Friendly: The trend of repairing anything is very rare in our society. Hence, we should use only those materials that are environmentally friendly. Therefore, this condition could be fulfilled through Aluminum that is non-toxic, and we can easily recycle this material, which is an enormous amount of money. In this way, we can enhance the environment of our earth.
- Removal of heat: The main problem of different electronic things is heating when we have used these devices for a long time. Therefore, we need to find such material that could help to mitigate this...